Plato&Socrates Excellence in Virtue Essay Example for Free

PlatoSocrates Excellence in Virtue Es guessSocrates positive influence touches us steady today (May 6) and we can perk up a great occupy about him from unmatchable of his students, Plato. It is in Platos report of Socrates trial a work entitled, excuse, and a friends blab to his jail cell while he is awaiting his death in Crito, that we discover a man like no some an a nonher(prenominal)(prenominal). Socrates was a man following a path he felt that the idols had wanted him to follow and made no excuses for his life and they way he lived it. The overtaking I piss chosen from Platos Apology is the main passage to which Socrates believed in until his death and gave the basis for his life and they way he chose to live his life. It is this passage that makes make headway exclusively of Platos literature and perhaps why even in living his own life he chose emulate and follow Socrates and ultimately became one of his offend-known students. To prove this, the wallpaper is o rganized into four sections. In the first section, I leave confide the get a line passage, along with some textual context to give background details.In the second section, I pull up stakes provide some relevant biographical/historical information about the author and the meter period for when the text was written. In the third section, I will provide a detailed analysis meaning and arguments of my key passage and in the fourth section I will explain the meaning of troika passages that support the key passage of the paper. However, in the beginning we can move some(prenominal) further into this process, I will present my key passage on which this paper is based. key passage.As long as I have breath and strength I will not give up philosophy and exhorting you and declaring the truth to e actually one of you whom I meet, saying as I am accustomed, My good friend, you are a citizen of Athens, a city which is very great and very famous for its cognizance and power-are you not ashamed of caring so much for the making of money and for fame and prestige, when you neither deem nor dispense about your wisdom and truth and the improvement of your soul? If he dis castes my words and says that he does caveat about these things I s house not at once sledding him and go away I shall question him and cross-examine him and test him. If I think that he has not attained virtue, though he says that he has, I shall misemploy him for undervaluing the most valuable things, and overvaluing those things that are less valuable. This I shall do to everyone whom I meet, young or old, citizen or stranger, but especially to citizens, since they are more well-nigh related to me. This, you must recognize, the god has commanded me to do.And I think that no great good has ever befallen you in the state than my service to the god. For I spend my strong life in going about and persuading you all to give your first and greatest care to the improvement of your souls, and not t ill you have done that to think of your bodies or your wealth. And I tell you that wealth does not bring excellence, but that wealth and every other good thing which men have, whether in creation or in private, come from excellence. (Baird Kaufmann 29-30).In this passage Socrates is our speaker and he is presenting his defense once morest the charges that have been brought against him by Meletus, Anytus, and Lycon. The charges they have brought against Socrates are for corrupting the callowness and worshipping gods other than the ones all other Athenians worshipped at that time in Ancient Greece. This passage is one of many times that Socrates brings to light the fact that what he has been doing by going around questioning people about their beliefs is commanded by the gods and that he should not be put to death for doing what has been asked of him.Socrates presents many times that what he is doing in trying to get people to not just question what they believe, but to work on th e improvement of their souls. He believes and so states in the passage that wealth and fame do not bring excellence to a persons life, but you become a better person first by amend your soul and that is actually where excellence can be found. Once a person has done this then they can concern themselves with other matters. Stating that you first flip over your attention inward and then outward to the larger society could sum up the general message of Socrates.While he does not explicitly say this one could reasonably interpret from Socrates defense that he believes the reason for the charges that have been brought up against him are due to a lack of understanding by the Athenian public of his mission and purpose as well as the authority he has to do it. This is what he is attempting to do in this passage, explain what he has been doing and that the god of all Athenians commanded him to do this work and that he has done nothing injure. historical/biographical information.Though Soc rates ran no formal school, one can find in any number of books on Plato, that he was a student of Socrates in Ancient Greece. According to Baird and Kaufmann Plato probably first began following Socrates sometimes in his twenties, though one cannot be sure of the exact date (4). The Apology, along with Crito, are just a number of texts written by Plato on the teachings and beliefs held by Socrates. The Apology is broadly speaking regarded as one of Platos first and as eminently faithful to what Socrates said at his trial on charges of impiety and corruption of the youth (Baird Kaufmann 5).The time of Socrates trial was around 399 B. C. in Athens, Greece and many contemporary scholars maintain that Platos Apology was composing within the first two to three old age following Socrates trial and execution (Brickhouse Smith 1). The charges against Socrates were corruption of the youth and worshipping some other god rather than the ones comm provided held to be believed in by other Athenians. It is in-chief(postnominal) to note as reported by Brickhouse and Smith that, Athens had only just concluded the Peloponnesian War.The effects of the war had been disastrous on her economy factions blamed each other for her defeats, and suspicion and power-mongering were rife (19). By this very fact they were spirit for someone to blame for their problems and Socrates was an excellent choice. It should come as no surprise that Athenians looked for the guilty among thinkers like Socrates. After all, by their very nature and regardless of their particular persuasions, such intellectual challenge established wisdom and tradition (Brickhouse Smith 19).Then the charges brought against Socrates and his trial were a course of action that the Athenians could see nothing wrong with at that time. Socrates was definitely a man before his time. Socrates was placed on trial for the questioning he did of others because he was pushing people in their long-held beliefs, which probably gave rise to fear. Even though Socrates felt confirm in his actions many did not hold that same theory. In fact, May states, most people would be quite irritated if someone criticized their moral beliefs. conjecture conversing with someone who continually pointed out the weakness in your beliefs (5). There are very few people that when pushed into why they believe what they do can generally come up with a concrete answer as to why they believe that way. In my opinion, much of what people believe in is based on tradition either from your own family or culturally and many times occurs as a combination of both. Platos dialogues are perhaps a up serious representation of Socrates teachings however, he does not give a consistent portrait of Socrates (May 20).May goes onto say that character Socrates is portrayed differently in some of Platos dialogues because in some of them. Plato is writing in order to chronicle the historical Socrates, whereas in others, Plato uses the character So crates as a mouthpiece of his own philosophical sic (20). Although Plato originally started to write his dialogues in order to chronicle the historical Socrates, he eventually started to write dialogues that were devoted to Platos actual philosophical views (20).It was this writing that caused Plato to forge his own views in an attempt to answer some of the questions that Socrates had posed along the way (May 20). Regardless of which Socrates is speaking the message however is the same in that excellence can be found in virtue over any other thing a person may possess. In addition, Socrates did not do any writing himself so all we have to go on is what Plato presented to us in his various texts. anaylsis In this passage, Socrates is telling the Athenian jury that he is innocent on the charges brought against him and why he is innocent.This passage is of extreme importance of understanding and interpreting Platos writings because it is a proposition that is repeated throughout his works. Our character Socrates feels that people should be more concerned with the perfecting their souls more than anything else in their life. He believes that in his quest to help people find their way he is actually doing as the gods dictated. Socrates also states that the only reason his is wise is because he knows that the only thing he does know is that he does not know anything charge knowing (Brickhouse Smith 129).In fact he so states in his defense when he says I am wiser than this man neither one of knows anything that is very worth knowing, but he thinks that he has experience when he has not, while I, having no knowledge, do no think that I have, I seem, at any rate, to be a little wiser than he is on this point I do not know what I do not know (Baird Kaufmann 24). Socrates believes that it is palpablely the gods that are wise and humans do not possess any wisdom.He believes that the best a human can do is to work on improving their souls and it is through this ac tion that a person can achieve a life of excellence. In fact, in a later section of the Apology, Socrates even states, an unexamined life is not worth living (Baird Kaufmann 34). That statement speaks to the true nature of Platos writings and how he wanted to impress upon others to live a better life. May even supports this idea when she states, Socrates claims that the meaning of Apollos oracle that humans cannot possess wisdom.Remember, Socrates does not believe that even he possesses wisdom, as he believes that real wisdom is the property of God (44). While taking into account the turbulent times of Athens one could substantially understand why that anyone questioning the geological formation would gain much notoriety and attention. While repeatedly Plato reports that Socrates felt he was doing gods work others were not as easily persuaded. Change is never welcomed by a society, because change means the known is questioned and people are stretched in ways they had not anticipa ted.One can find numerous examples of this throughout time ranging from slaves macrocosm released to live as free men, the flight of Kitty Hawk, Hitler, and even as recent as the presidential race of 2008 which was highlighted by frequent reports that Barak Obama was a terrorist. alone of these things created change in the world around them and opened up countless avenues to others while many people stayed behind too scared to move forward. pass through states that, Socrates presents himself as someone who questions others in the matters of virtue and who examines or refutes them by mean of an elenchus when they have answered inadequately. (x) An elenchus is Socrates characteristic method of inquiry and refutation some might take aim it badgering (Reeve x). He also presents himself as a servant of Apollo whose mission has been divinely inspired and it is not simply to question people. But to get them to care about virtue and their psyches their souls above everything else. (R eeve x) Even in his later work of the Crito, in which Crito comes to visit Socrates in prison offering him a chance to escape, Plato does not have Socrates change his beliefs and escape to a foreign land.In the Apology, Socrates claims that a human being has only one thing to consider namely whether one is acting rightly or wrongly (28c). This is repeated in the Crito when Socrates states that his duty to consider just one question, whether it would be right to escape or wrong (May 78). As he continues to examine the option before him Socrates cannot come up with any reason why it would be right for him to escape and that to do would be morally wrong and go against everything he has stood for his entire life. The selfish action of escaping would have disastrous results and wipe out years of Socrates work.One can easily see how Plato has carried the message of Socrates throughout his writing and used it to his benefit. In order to be considered wise by Plato, a person needs to examin e their beliefs and knowledge to better their soul before any other task is undertaken. It is this that will last far longer than any wealth, power, property or prestige that is attained. Because as Socrates says I spend my whole life in going about and persuading you all to give your first and greatest care to the improvement of your souls, and not till you have done that to think of your bodies or your wealth (Baird Kaufmann 30). supporting passages.This is the first of three passages that supports the fact that the passage quoted at the beginning of this paper and ultimately makes clear all of Platos writings and gives further insight into Socrates life. But then I again proved, not by mere words but by my actions, that, if I may speak bluntly, I do no care a straw for death but that I do care very much indeed about not doing anything unjust or impious. That governing body and all its power did not terrify me into doing anything unjust (Baird Kaufmann 31).This passage comes fr om Apology soon after the key passage in which Socrates is defending himself against the charges of corrupting the youth and worshiping false gods. In this passage he is telling how that when ordered by the government to bring Leon the Salaminian to them so that they might put him to death he chose to live by his values even though he was defying the government. He goes onto to explain that it is a persons actions that mean more than the mere words they utter.He states how that even in the face of death he chose not to anything unjust or impious, but to live according to the gods decree for his life. He goes on to say that if the government of The Thirty had stayed in power he would have certainly been put to death, but he did not care one way or another. He is saying in no uncertain terms that he will not be coerced or bullied into doing anything that goes against the will of god. The position that he takes shows that he is strong-willed and a man who is true to his word and that even if this current aggroup of Athenians puts him to death he will not fight them unnecessarily.This passage relates to the key passage by showing that by following ones beliefs and doing what is right and just helps to lead a person closer to excellence in virtue and to living a better life. The second passage also appears in the Apology and comes after Socrates has been found guilty by the Athenians of the crimes of which he was accused and now is speaking about what a suitable punishment might be for him.And if I tell you that no greater good can happen to a man than to discuss human excellence every day and the other matters about which you have heard me arguing and examining myself and others and that an unexamined life is not worth living, then you will believe me still less (Baird Kaufmann 34) Plato is once again writing in reference to the first idea presented by Socrates that in order to be great people should first improve their inner self and not worry about things out side of themselves until they have reached that point.It is only by doing this that a person can achieve an excellence in their virtue far greater than any material possession or status one may achieve.Socrates is again stating that he has only been doing what the gods have asked of him and that he has been attempting to impress upon others the importance of individual(prenominal) virtue rather than material gain. He is again stating how he personally did that and was only attempting to get others to see the world as he saw it. In fact, Socrates believes that death is not justice in his case, but since he has lived his life as a pauper that he should be sentenced to life in the prytaneum, which is the town hall of Ancient Greece used to house distinguished visitors and guests (Dictionary.com).He states in there he would be forced to live a life in murder opposite of what he has known since it would be rich and lavish and in addition he would receive three full meals a day. This ac cording to Socrates is the gelid opposite of the way he has been living and would actually be a punishment to him since it goes against what he has been doing. This passage relates to the key passage by not only re-stating what was said previously, but provides further evidence that Socrates was committed to the cause of excellence even after he was sentenced to death.This third passage comes from Platos Crito when Socrates friend Crito visits him in prison. Are we to start our inquiry from the premise that it is never right either to act unjustly or to repay injustice with injustice to avenge ourselves on any man who harms us, by harming him in return? Or do you disagree with me and dissent from my premise? I myself believed in it for a long time and I still believe in it. (Baird Kaufmann 43) Crito actually bribes a guard in order to be allowed into Socrates prison cell and Socrates is not at all pleased by that action because it is an unjust act.The purpose of his visit is to c onvince Socrates to escape and continue to live a free man. Crito informs him that many people are willing to help him escape and continue his work of helping others in another country where he will be free from the narrow-mindedness of the Athenians who have sentenced him to death. While many people would jump at an opportunity to escape and continue to live their lives, even if it meant being a fugitive, Socrates refuses. But here again we see that Socrates is adamant about his position.In the above passage he states that it is wrong to escape because it would mean going against everything for which he has stood and argued for his entire life. He feels that it would a mistake to escape and repay an injustice with an injustice there is no virtue in that action. He believes even as his death nears that what he has stood for looking for excellence in virtue and by becoming a better person by looking inward first to improve the soul, that he is constitute and nothing will veer him of f his course.This passage ties to the key passage by showing how through his actions Socrates believed that living justly and rightly were more important than living a life where a person would simply exist because they were following the dictates of others and not living, as they truly believed. conclusion In conclusion, the key passage from Platos Apology that I have discussed here is the critical point of all his writings. In the key passage as well as the three supporting passages I discussed one can see how living a life of excellence as found through virtuous actions was the central theme throughout his writings.One can easily see why Plato would have chosen to be a student of Socrates and spend a great deal of his writing career recalling the events of Socrates life and death. At the time of his writings and Socrates death, Athens was in need of a good and moral hero and Plato chose Socrates to help others meet that success was measured not by material goods but through good actions based on right motives. Works Cited Baird, Forrest E. and Kaufmann, Walter.From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, new-fashioned Jersey Pearson Prentice Hall. 2008. Print. Brickhouse, Thomas C. and Nicholas D. Smith. Socrates on Trial. Princeton, New Jersey Princeton University Press, 1989. Print. Dictionary. com. n. d. n pag. Web. 22 Nov. 09. May, Hope. On Socrates. Belmont, California Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2000. Print. Reeve, C. D. C. Socrates in the Apology An Essay on Platos Apology of Socrates. Indianapolis, Indiana, 1989. Print.

Carnival Cruise Lines Essay Example for Free

funfair journey margins EssayIn the case of Kirby vs. Carnival, I hold Carnival Cruise Lines responsible for her injury. There ar several reasons why, counterbalance the bartender is responsible for her overall consumptions of alcoholic beverage, there is a history of lymph nodes that have either fallen or jumped over board and finally there is the occurrence that carnival never took it upon themselves to call for air lift transportation to the close hospital. Bartenders at Carnival Cruise Lines rely on big tabs and tips to make their earnings. Since they make to build up their tabs, why not get an innocent guest just looking to have a good time extremely shake?I feel like the bartender encouraged the drinking by offering five-dollar certificates for the casino. The more she drank, the more free money for the casino she got. She was visibly rum when she left the bar, the bartender should have asked a crewmember to escort her to her room and told her friend to keep an eye out for her as a simple standard of care. Carnival Cruise Line has a history of passengers falling off or jumping off their ships, about 30 incidents a year are reported. round of those passengers have unfortunately passed away because of this.If Carnival Cruise Line knows this, then why dont they go above and beyond for their own guests safety? They should have had more cameras, more detectors, and more employees that care enough about the passengers to not let them get so intoxicated. Finally, Carnival Cruise Line is negligent for not stopping immediately to rescue her. They left her in the middle of the sea for almost two hours. The longer you stay in the water, the worse your injuries get. When they finally get her back to ship, the independent contractor they hired as a doctor could not assist her since her injuries were of an emergency level.The only topic the doctor did was give her pain relief medicine, which of course will never work for these types of injuries. Also , Carnival Cruise Line should have air lifted her to the nearest capable medical facilities, even without her consent to pay. Carnival Cruise Line could have offered to pay for at least the air lifting services, it is the least they can do for her and her family after going through this entire trauma. In conclusion, I feel Carnival Cruise Line is guilty of standards of care and negligence on their part.They are the ones that in the industry, and should provide extreme safety procedures, especially after there is a history of passengers falling or jumping over board. Also the bartender is responsible for her overall consumptions of alcohol, particularly because Carnival Cruise Lines has total control of alcohol on their ships. They do not let guests bring their own alcohol their consumption and alcohol intoxication solely rely on Carnival Cruise Lines to provide that for them. As a final point, Carnival Cruise Line never took it upon them to give her proper medical attention.

Education and Economics Essay Example for Free

breeding and Economics EssayI. Introduction The conventional theory of human slap-up actual by Becker (1962) and mincing machine (1974) views commandment and training as the major sources of human capital accumulation that, in turn, fool direct and positive meat on individuals life time fee. In the Mincerian secureing function, the coefficient of school day course of instructions indicates the returns to teaching, i. e. , how much addition in earnings takes place with an supererogatory school family. There exists a simple range of literature that estimated the rates of returns to training for different countries Pascharapoulos (1980 1985 and 1994) Pascharapoulos and Chu Ng (1992)1. In Pakistan, most of the nationally vox household surveys do not barricade nurture on proteans, such as, completed years of schooling, age scoop outing school, literacy and numeracy skills, type of schooling, and expert training. Due to the unavailability of completed school year s, one pot neither compute the potential live on nor observe the effect of an additional year of schooling on individual earnings. Therefore, the ge hedge literature in Pakistan is overleaping in estimating the returns to education by utilize the Mincerian earning function2.In recent years, the regime of Pakistan has started nation-wide survey, Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS), to address the imbalances in the affable sector. This survey ? The authors argon superior Research Economist and Research Economist at the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) Islamabad. 1 Pascharapoulos (1994) provide a comprehensive update of the estimated rates of returns to education at a global scale. He observed last social and privy profitability of primary education (18%and 9% one by one) in all regions of world.The cliquish rate of returns at this level were open up highest in Asia (39%) as compared to other regions. He also noted a considerable increase in mak e out earnings by an additional year of education in all regions of world 13% in Sub-Saharan Africa 10% in Asia 12% in Europe/Middle East/North Africa and 12% in Latin America/Caribbean. 2 At national level, only dickens studies are available in Pakistan that utilize the Mincerian earning function approach to raise the returns to education see Shabbir and Khan (1991) and Shabbir (1994).However, both these studies are based on twenty years old entropy set. 2 provides rich info on the above mentioned variables that were missing in the earlier household surveys. This study uses the data of PIHS to examine the returns to education by using Mincerian earning function and thus aims to fill the vacuum that, due to the lack of appropriate data, exists in the literature on returns to education in Pakistan. In this paper we testament first estimate the earning function with free burning school years with the assumption of uniform rate of returns for all school years.It is argued that d ifferent school years stockpile different skills therefore we extend our analysis to examine the addition in earning associated with extra years of schooling at different levels of education, i. e. , how much increase in earnings takes place with an extra year of schooling at different levels, such as, primary, middle, matric, intermediate, knight bachelors and master. By doing so we overcome the problem that exists in the available literature in Pakistan.To our knowledge no study has yet adopted this method to examine the returns to education in Pakistan3. The impact of proficient training and school spirit on the earnings of fixed salaried and lucre earners entrust be examined in this study. Based on the available data in Pakistan, most of the studies, for example, Haque (1977), Hamdani (1977), Guisinger et al (1984), Khan and Irfan (1985), Ahmad, et al (1991) and Ashraf and Ashraf (1993a, 1993b, and 1996) estimated the earning functions by defining the dummy variables for di fferent levels of education4.These studies observe gloomy rates of returns at different levels of education as compared to other developing countries. However, a positive association between levels of education and earnings and an inverse relationship between the degree of income inequality and educational attainment has been noted. In auberge to examine the inter- 3 just about of the studies on returns to education in Pakistan used dummy variables for different levels of education where the rates of returns at different levels of education are computed by the estimated coefficients.4 In Pakistan, the data on education in most of the nationally representative household surveys energise been account in decided form that denotes the completion of different levels of education, such as, primary save incomplete middle, middle and incomplete matric, and so on. 3 provincial differentials in returns to education, Shabbir and Khan (1991) estimated the Mincerian earning function by u sing a nationally representative sample, drawn from the of Population, Labour Force and Migration Survey (1979) for the literate wage earners and salaried males. later Shabbir (1994) estimated the earning function on the extended sample of the same data set. These studies found 7 to 8 pct increase in earnings with an additional year of schooling. Although the results are consistent with those of comparable LDCs but may not reflect the recent developments in Pakistans economy as these studies are based on the data set which are 20 years old now. Since 1979, the economy of Pakistan has passed through various changes, especially after the inception of the Structural Adjustment policy-making program in late 1980s.For example, the literacy rate has increased from 26 percentage to 45 percent and enrolment at primary level has increased by 67 percent. cosmos and household expenditures on education have also increased Economic Survey (1998-99). Moreover, due to the fiscal constraints, t he employment opportunities in the macrocosm sector have started shrinking and the economy is moving towards more openness with stronger role of secluded sector in recent years. In this scenario, it becomes imperative to re-test the role of human capital as both private and public sectors are moving towards more efficiency and productivity.This study is important from three standpoints. First, in severalize to estimate the effect of education on earnings, the most recent and nationally representative household survey data is used which provides detailed randomness on the variables that were missing in previous surveys. Second, it uses the splines of education in the earning function to examine the additional earnings associated with extra school years at different levels. Third, this study investigates the role of some(prenominal) important factors such as, technical training, school quality, and literacy and numeracy skills on earnings for the first time.4 The rest of the pape r is organised as follows section 2 presents an overview of the education sector. Section 3 outlines the model for empirical estimation and describes data. Section 4 reports the results. Conclusions and policy Implications are presented in the last Section. II. The Education Sector in Pakistan An Overview Education plays an important role in human capital formation. It raises the productivity and efficiency of individuals and thus produces skilled manpower that is capable of leading the economy towards the path of sustainable economic development.Like many other developing countries, the situation of the education sector in Pakistan is not very encouraging. The low enrolment rates at the primary level, wide disparities between regions and gender, lack of trained teachers, deficiency of proper teaching materials and poor physical infrastructure of schools indicate the poor performance of this sector. The overall literacy rate for 1997-98 was estimated at 40 percent 51 percent for ma les and 28 percent for females 60 percent in urban areas and 30 percent in rural areas. These rates are still among the lowest in the world.Due to various measures in recent years, the enrolment rates have increased considerably. However, the high drop-out rate could not be controlled at primary level. Moreover, under-utilisation of the existing educational infrastructure stinkpot be seen through low student-institution ratio, (almost 18 students per class per institution) low teacher-institution ratio (2 teachers per institution) and high studentteacher ratio (46 students per teacher). The extremely low levels of public investment are the major cause of the poor performance of Pakistans education sector.Public expenditure on education remained less than 2 percent of GNP before 1984-85. In recent years it has increased to 2. 2 percent. In addition, the assignation of government funds is skewed towards higher education so that the benefits of public subsidy on education are largely reaped by the upper income class. some(prenominal) of the highly educated 5 go abroad either for higher education or in search of better antic opportunities. Most of them do not return and cause a large public loss. aft(prenominal) mid-1980s, each government announced special programs for the make betterment of the education sector.However, due to the political instability, none of these programs could achieve their targets. The Social Action Program was launched in early 1990s to address the imbalances in the social sector. This program aims to enhance education to improve school environment by providing trained teachers, teaching aids and quality text books and to reduce gender and regional disparities. The Phase-I of SAP (1993-96) has been completed and Phase-II is in progress. The gains from the Phase-I are still debatable because the rise in enrolment ratio has not been confirmed by the self-sufficient sources.Irrespective of this outcome, government has started work on P hase-II of SAP. In this Phase, government is paying special attention to promote technical and vocational education, expanding higher education in public as salubrious as in the private sector, enhancing computer literacy, promoting scientific education, and improving curriculum for schools and teachers training institutions in addition to promoting primary and secondary education. Due to low levels of educational attainment and lack of technical and vocational education, Pakistans labour marketplace is dominated by less educated and unskilled manpower.A considerable rise in the subject of educational institutions and enrolment after 1980s is not yet reflected in Pakistans labour market. This might be due to the fact that most of the bachelors and masters degree programmes emphasise only on academic education without developing specific skills. The sluggish demand for the graduates of these programs in the job markets leads to unemployment among the educated and the job market re mains dominated by the less educated. In this scenario, it becomes important to explore the role of education for the economic benefit of individuals.6 III. Theoretical Model and Estimation Methodology We start with the human capital model developed by Becker (1964) and Mincer (1974) where natural logarithm of monthly earnings are the linear function of completed school years, experience and its square. In mathematical form the equation can be written as ln Wi = ? 0 + ? 1 EDU i + ? 2 EXPi + ? 3 ( EXPi ) 2 + Ui (1) where ln Wi stands for natural logarithm of monthly earnings, EDUi represents completed years of schooling, and EXPi is the labor market experience of ith individual.?1 implies the marginal rate of return to schooling. A positive time value of ? 2 and negative value of ? 3 reflects the concavity of the earning function with respect to experience. Ui is the error term, assumed to be normally and identically distributed. It has been argued in the literature that different s chool years impart different skills and hence affect earnings differently. Therefore, it is misleading to assume a uniform rate of return for all educational levels. Most of the previous studies used dummy variables to pick up the effect of different levels of education.In order to examine the effect of school years at different levels of education, van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989) divided the years of schooling according to the school systems of Cote d Ivore. Similarly Khandker (1990) also used years of primary, secondary and post-secondary schooling in wage function for Peru. Both studies found of import differences in returns to education at different levels of education. Following van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989), we divide the school years into seven categories according to the education system of Pakistan.In Pakistan, the primary education consists of 5 years of schooling middle requires 3 more years and by completing 2 more years of schooling after middle, an individua l obtains a secondary school certificate i. e., Matric. After matric , i. e. , 10 years of schooling, students have a choice between technical and dinner gown education. Technical education 7 can be obtained from technical institutions which award diploma after 3 years of education while the certificate of intermediate can be obtained after two years of formal education.After the completion of intermediate certificate, students can enter either in the headmaster colleges for four years or in non-professional bachelors degree program for two years in a college. Those who choose non-professional degree can pursue their studies in a university for masters for two more years. At this stage the graduates of professional and non-professional colleges complete 16 years of education. They can now proceed to the M. Phil. or Ph. D. degrees. In order to examine the returns to education at different splines of education, we estimate the side by side(p) extended earning function. ln Wi = ? 0 + ? 1Yrs Pr imi + ?2 YrsMid i + ? 3YrsMati + ? 4 YrsInteri + ? 5 YrsBAi + (2) ? 6 Yrs Pr of i + ? 7 EXPi + ? 8 ( EXPi ) 2 + Ui where YrsPrim, YrsMid, YrsMat YrsInter YrsBA YrsProf are delineate as YrsPrim = D5EDUi YrsMid = D8EDUi YrsMat = D10EDUi YrsInter = D12EDUi YrsBA = D14EDUi YrsProf = D16EDUi where D5 = 1 if where D8 = 1 if where D10 = 1 if where D12 = 1 if where D14 = 1 if where D16 = 1 if 0 EDU ? 5 5 EDU ? 8 8 EDU ? 10 10 EDU ? 12 12 EDU ? 14 EDU 14 The coefficients associated with YrsPrim, YrsMid, YrsMat YrsInter YrsBA YrsProf in equation 2 imply an increase in income with one year increase in education at respective levels.For example, the returns to five completed years of education at primary level will be 5*? 1. Similarly, the returns to for six, seven and eight of education will be 5*? 1+? 2, 5*? 1+2? 2, and 5*? 1+3? 2 respectively. On the same lines we can compute the returns to education at each level as 8 Returns to Primary =5*? 1 Returns to Middle =5*? 1+3*? 2 Re turns to Matric= 5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 Returns to Intermediate=5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 +2*? 4 Returns to knight bachelors =5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 +2*? 4 +2*? 5 Returns to MA/Prof=5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 +2*? 4 +2*? 5 +2*?6 The data are drawn from the nationally representative Pakistan Integrated Household Survey 1995-96. In order to assess the performance of the Social Action Programme (SAP), the government of Pakistan has launched the series of Pakistan Integrated Household Surveys (PIHS), a collaborative nation wide data collection effort undertaken by the Federal Bureau of Statistics (FBS). So far two finish outs have been completed. The first round of the PIHS is different from other round on two counts. Firstly, the information on employment and stipend is available only in this round.Secondly, only 33 percent of the sample used in the first round is being repeated in the subsequent rounds. This implies that all of these rounds are independent cross-section data sets and can not be properly linke d with each other to be used as panel data. Therefore, the appropriate sample can only be drawn from the first round of PIHS. This round was conducted in 1995-96, which covers 12,622 households and more than 84,000 individuals. The 1995-96 PIHS provides a detailed information on completed school years5. In addition, this survey contains information on age started school.This information is particularly important for our study to calculate the potential experience of a worker. The indicator for experience used by Mincer (1974) is a good proxy for U. S. workers as they start school at the uniform age of six years6. However, this assumption does not hold in Pakistan, as in this country there is no uniform age to start school. In urban areas, children as young as three years start going to school whereas in rural 5 This is the only nation-wide data set that provides this particular information.Similarly no other survey contains information on public and private school attendence and yea r start school. 6 Mincer defined experience as (Age-education-6). 9 areas the school starting age is higher. 7 This information alters us to construct potential experience as (age-schools years-age starting school). Although experience is still a proxy for actual experience but it is relatively better measure than age and the Mincer type potential experience. In addition to education and experience, various other factors, such as quality of schooling, technical training and quality of schooling have significant impact on earning8.It has been argued that because of the market-oriented approach adopted by the private schools, the graduates of these schools earn more as compared to the graduates of public schools9. According to sabot (1992), Behrman, Ross, Sabot and Tropp (1994), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996a), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996b), and Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot (1997), the quality of education has positive, significant and substantial impact on cognitive achievements and hence on post school productivity, measured by earnings.These studies observed higher earnings of the graduates of high quality school than those who attended a low quality school. A recent study by Nasir (1999) found considerably higher earnings for the private school graduates. These schools, however, charge higher fees. Estimates of fairish annual expenditure per scholar in both government and private schools indicates that the total cost of primary level in rural areas is Rs. 437 (Rs 355 for government schools and Rs. 1252 for private schools), compared with Rs. 2038 in urban areas (Rs.1315 for government and Rs. 3478 for private schools).This means that the cost of primary schooling is almost three times that of public schools in urban 7 The issue of age starting school has been highlighted by Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) and because of the nonavailability of this information, they used age as proxy for experience. 8 See Summers and Wolf (1977) Rizzuto and Wachtel (1980) Behrman and Birdsall (1983) Booissiere, Knight and Sabot (1985) Knight and Sabot (1990)Behrman, Ross, Sabot, and Tropp (1994) Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot (1997).9 Various studies found the effectiveness of private schools to acquire cognitive skills Colemen, Hoffer and Kilgore (1982) and Jimenez, Lockheed, Luna and Paqueo (1989). For Pakistan, Sabot (1992), Behrman, Ross, Sabot and Tropp (1994), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996a), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996b), and Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot (1997) found a significant reading in the cognitive skills among children with same number of school years. These studies conclude that some of the differences are due to the family characteristics while some are due to the quality of schooling.10areas and nearly four times in rural areas. The differences in cost of schooling also reflect the degree of quality differentials in public and private schools, and between urban and rural schools. A relativel y better provision of school facilities and quality of education in private schools is causing a continuous rise in school enrolment in urban areas Mehmood (1999) page 20. The PIHS provides information on the type of school attended10. On the basis of this information we can identify workers according to the school they attended and therefore examine the effect of type of school on individual earnings.In order to capture the quality of education an individual received, a dummy variable is included in the model that takes the value 1 if individual is a graduate of private schools and 0 otherwise. The effect of post-school training on earning has been found positive and substantial in many developing countries see Jimenez and Kugler (1987) van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989) Khandker (1990) and Nasir (1999). The PIHS contains information on years of technical training. This information helps us to examine the effect of technical training received on individual earnings.We use completed years of technical training as independent variable in the earning function. The existence of massive gender gap in human capital accumulation is evidenced by various studies in Pakistan11. The PIHS reports vast gender disparities in literacy and enrolment rates. The literacy rate among females is half than that of males literacy rate for whole Pakistan. This difference has increased to three-folds for rural areas. The gender difference is however smaller for the unrefined enrolment rate at primary level. For the higher levels of education, this difference 10.The coefficient of private school may also capture the effect of socio-economic background of workers. The data, however, does not contain such information, therefore we are unable to separate the effect of parental characteristics from the effect of private schools in workers earnings. 11 Sabot (1992) and Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996b) Sawada (1997) Shabbir (1993) and Ashraf and Ashraf (1993a, 1993b, and 1996) 11 shows an increasing trend. Similarly vast gender gap has been observed in returns to education where males earn more than the female workers Ashraf and Ashraf (1993a, 1993b and 1996) and Nasir (1999).In order to capture the effect of gender, a dummy variable is introduced in the model that takes the value 1 for males and 0 otherwise. The regional imbalances in the provision of limited available social services are more pronounced in Pakistan. Rural areas are not only underdeveloped in terms of physical infrastructure but also neglected in gaining basic amenities. Haq (1997) figure the disaggregated human development index for Pakistan and its provinces. He noted that nearly 56 percent of population is take of basic amenities of life in Pakistan 58 percent in rural areas and 48 percent in urban areas.According to the 1995-96 PIHS, the literacy rate in urban areas is 57 percent and in rural areas it is 31 percent. The gross enrolment rate was noted 92 percent in urban areas and 68 percent in rural areas. Because of these differences low returns to education are observed in rural areas Shabbir (1993 and 1994) and Nasir (1999). To capture the effect of regional differences, a dummy variable is used that takes the value 1 if individual lives in urban areas and zero otherwise. The four provinces of Pakistan exhibit different characteristics in terms of economic as well as social and cultural values.Significant provincial differentials in rates of returns to education have been noted that reflect not only the differences in market opportunities but also indicate uneven expansion of social services across provinces Khan and Irfan (1985) Shabbir and Khan (1991) Shabbir (1993) Shabbir (1994) and Haq (1997). The effects of these differences are captured through the use of dummy variables for each province in the earning function, Sindh being the excluded category. 12 For the purpose of analysis we restrict our sample to wage earners and salaried persons. Our sample co ntains 4828 individuals.Among them, 4375 are males and 453 are females. control panel 1 presents the descriptive statistics of some of the salient features of the important variables. According to the statistics in table 1, average age of the individuals included in the sample is 34 years with 18 years of experience. A typical worker in the sample has completed approximately 10 years of education. A majority is graduated from public schools. Most of the workers live in urban areas. On average an individual earns Rs. 3163 per month. In our sample, there are only 22 percent individuals who received technical training.The average years spent for training are less than one year. A majority of wage earners belong to Punjab, followed by Sindh and Balochistan. Table1 Mean, Standard Deviation and Brief Definitions of weighty Variables Variables W Age EDU EXP RWA MALE Urban Private Training Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan Mean SD Variables Definitions 3163. 34 3397. 39 Individuals monthly ea rnings in rupees consist of wages and salaries. 34. 07 12. 36 Age of an individual in years. 9. 53 4. 36 Completed years of schooling. 18. 14 11. 80 Total Years of labour market experience calculated as (age-school years-age starting school).2. 37 1. 07 Categorical variables, contains 4 categories of literacy and numeracy. 0. 91 0. 29 dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual is male. 0. 60 0. 49 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to urban area 0. 04 0. 19 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual is a graduate of private school 0. 35 0. 87 Completed years of technical training 0. 38 0. 49 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to Punjab 0. 31 0. 46 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to Sindh 0. 15 0. 36 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to NWFP 0. 16 0.36 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to Balochistan 13 IV. Empirical Results The estimated results of equation 1 and equation 2 are reported in table 2. The highly significant coefficients of school years and experience indicate the applicability of human capital model for Pakistan. An additional year of schooling raises individuals monthly income by 7. 3 percent, which is very close to the prior studies. 12 13 The coefficient of experience shows substantial increase in wages with each additional year. The concavity of age-earnings profile is evident from the negative and significant coefficient of experience squared.The results reveal that an individual with five years of experience earns 31 percent higher wages as compared to non-experience worker. The highest level of earnings is achieved with approximately 30 years of experience. These estimates are relatively low compared to prior studies14. The positive and significant coefficients of gender (0. 401) and regional dummies (0. 178) strengthens the a priori expectation that males earn more than females and earnings are higher in urban areas as compared to rur al areas. These estimates are consistent with earlier studies see Arshaf and Ashraf (1993), Khan and Irfan (1985).Furthermore, significant inter-provincial differences in individuals earnings can be observed in the estimated model. Many studies indicate substantial differences in earnings across school levels. For example, van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989) noted that an increase of one year in elementary, high and university education causes an increase of 12 percent, 20 percent and 22 percent respectively in 12 The estimated coefficients of school years by Shabbir and Khan (1991), Shabbir (1991), Shabbir (1993) and Shabbir (1994) are found to be in the range of 6 percent to 9.7 percent. 13 The returns to education are calculated by taking the anti-log of 0. 092 (estimated coefficient of completed school years) and subtracting from 1. To convert into percentage, multiply the value by 100. For details, please see Gujrati (1988) page 149. 14 The difference in the returns to experienc e could be due to the approach adopted by these studies. Most of the studies used age as a proxy for experience see for example Khan and Irfan (1985) Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) and Nasir (1999). Shabbir (1991) used the Mincerian approach to calculate experience.The present study uses actual age of starting school and actual years of education. These information enable us to calculate total years of labor market experience. This approach is also not the perfect alternative for actual experience, as we do not have information about the starting time of the first job. But when compared with other approaches, it is more precise in measuring experience. 14 earnings. In order to examine the returns to education across different school years, we include the information on schooling according to the education system of Pakistan (equation 2).The results reported in tug 3 of table 2 show a positive and significant impact of school years at each educational level on earnings. For example, an in crease of one year in education at primary level increases the earnings by 3 percent. Similarly, at middle level, one year of schooling brings about an increase of 4 percent in earnings and the total returns to schooling at middle level are 27 percent. Table 2 Earning Function with and without Levels of Education Variables Coefficient s 6. 122 0. 072* 0. 058* -0. 001* 0. 178* 0. 401* 0. 127* -0. 113* -0. 203* 0. 412 t-ratios Coefficient s 6. 380 0. 058* -0.001* 0. 150* 0. 264* 0. 098* -0. 112* -0. 166* 0. 027** 0. 040* 0. 050* 0. 057* 0. 071* 0. 082* 0. 429 t-ratios Coefficient s 6. 342 0. 058* -0. 001* 0. 152* 0. 262* 0. 096* -0. 108* -0. 164* 0. 052* 0. 007 0. 025* 0. 038* 0. 047* 0. 063* 0. 075* 0. 429 t-ratios Constant EDU EXP EXP2 Urban Male Balochistan NWFP Punjab RWA Yrs-Prim Yrs-Mid Yrs-Mat Yrs-Inter Yrs-BA Yrs-Prof Adj R2 148. 91 46. 71 26. 49 -19. 20 10. 31 13. 98 4. 94 -4. 34 -10. 21 92. 03 23. 85 -16. 84 7. 87 8. 15 3. 40 -4. 06 -7. 75 2. 03 5. 07 8. 69 11. 41 16. 85 21 . 98 89. 25 23. 84 -16. 88 7. 98 8. 09 3. 32 -3. 91 -7. 63 2. 41 0. 45 2.45 5. 02 7. 28 11. 47 15. 57 * significant at 99 percent level. ** significant at 95 percent level. One can note higher returns of additional year of schooling for higher educational levels from this table. For example, the returns to masters and professional education (Yrs-Prof) are more than five- 15 times higher than that of primary school years (Yrs-Prim). The results exhibit a difference of 15 percent between primary graduates and illiterates, the excluded category. This category includes illiterates as well as all those who have not obtained any formal schooling but have literacy and numeracy skills15.To move on explore the earning differential between primary school graduates and those who never attended school but have literacy and numeracy skills, we have constructed an index RWA that separates illiterates from those who have literacy and numeracy skills. This index takes the value zero if individua l does not have any skill 1 if individual has only one skill 2 if individual has two skills and 3 if individual has all three skills. We re-estimated equation 2 with this new variable and the results are reported in column 5 of table 2.According to our expectations, the coefficient of RWA is found not only large (0. 05) in magnitude but also statistically significant at 99 percent level. This indicates that the individuals with all three skills earn 15 percent more than those who have no skill. On the other hand, the coefficient of Yrs-Prim dropped to 0. 007 and became insignificant16. The differential in the earnings of illiterates and those having five years of primary education was 15 percent (0. 03*5=0. 15). This differential however, reduced to approximately 9 percent (0. 007*5+0. 053=8.8) when we include those who have no formal education but have literacy and numeracy skills. These high returns to cognitive skills indicates the willingness of employer to pay higher wages to t he able workers as compared to those who have five or less years of schooling but do not have these skills. Now we examine the effect of technical training and quality of schooling on earnings, first in separate equations and then in a single equation. The impact of technical training on earnings is examined by including years of apprenticeship as continuous variable in our model.The results are reported in column 1 of table 3. The results show a positive and significant impact of technical 15 There are 48 wage earners in our sample who have education less than primary but do not have any of these skill. Whereas we found 76 wage earners who do not have any formal education but have at least one of these skills. 16 This result is consistent with van der Gaag and Vijierberg (1989). 16 Table 3 Earning Functions Impact of Technical Training and School Quality (Separate Functions) Variables Constant EDU EXP EXP2 Urban Male Balochistan NWFP Punjab Tra.

Examine The Legality Of Military Humanitarian Intervention International Law Essay

Examine The Legality Of Military homophileitarian Intervention International Law EssayThe general prohibition on the white plague of military unit contained in Article 2(4)1of the UN Charter forms a cornerst unity of popular foreign rectitude. That prohibition is subject to a very narrow category of exceptions, solely of which arise from the refine to self-defence codified in Article 51 of the UN Charter.2A more controversial exception to the routine of force that has been claimed to arise as a rule of customary foreign law is that of human-centered hinderance. This essay looks at the arguments in support of the proposition that humanistic discourse is now conventional in international law as a lawful exception to the general prohibition on the do of force and assertions against such a proposition.The hypothetic debateEver since the question of the legality of humanistic sermon prototypic arose, in that respect has been both vocal support and opposition to it. La uterpacht famously pitch send on the rationale behind humane treatment. He stated that one had to go back to the purpose of the general prohibition on the use of force, and that was to ensure ease. He considered that ultimately, peace is more endangered by tyrannical contempt for human rights than by attempts to assert, through encumbrance, the sanctity of human personality.3He thus considered that add-on intervention was justified if a state committed atrocities against its citizens in such a way and to such a degree that it interfered with those citizens fundamental human rights.However, it has endlessly been apprehended that there are problems with the very idea that a state would expend its own resources and risk its own security simply for the good of the citizens of some other state. much(prenominal) a view might be considered to be cynical, but there is no doubt that history has shown that whenever humanist intervention is claimed as the legal ass for forces for ce in a nonher country, it is mixed with other reasons why a state would military interject in a nonher state.4Furthermore, humanitarian intervention is oftentimes put forward as a bootr coat for legality of force without the citizens of the state who feel suffered the intervention asking for such intervention to possess place.5One can thusly question the theoretical netherpinnings of such intervention.This problem is merely exacerbated when one considers that humanitarian intervention is intervention that is undertaken by states on a unilateral basis outside of the precepts of the Security Council. The purpose of setting up the United Nations and the Security Council was to provide for peace throughout the world and engage in military intervention when required, as authorised by the Security Council. The Security Council is thus authorised with powers under Chapter VII of the UN Charter that solelyows it to authorise military use of force in a nonher country. In doing so, the Security Council is able to take into account the fact that a embark onicular country is facing human rights violations at the hands of its government and/or leaders.6 so for example, in 1991, when the oppressive government of Iraq creation led by Saddam Hussein took disproportionate military run to repress the Iraqi civilian population, the Security Council passed Resolution 668 under Chapter 7 of the UN Charter demanding of Iraq to immediately end the repression and insist that it allowed access to international humanitarian organisations to raise Iraq.7Any force authorised by the Security Council may be politically contentious, but there is no doubt that it would be lawful under the rules of force in international law. Given that there is such a power in the Security Council, one would question why there was a need for humanitarian intervention.8Indeed, providing that there is a right for humanitarian intervention available to states that can be caused strong-mindedly o f the UN and the Security Council would greatly undermine the government agency of the Security Council as the body entrusted with authorisation of military force.9Humanitarian intervention is thus a tenet which has dogged been debated in the courts. The real debate lies tho in the practical instances that have arisen in the past where humanitarian intervention has been alleged as a plea of force. The section below shall go on to analyse these practical instances and asses to what extent humanitarian intervention can be said to now be a norm of international law. working instances of humanitarian interventionOne major problem that arises when assessing the legality of the doctrine of humanitarian intervention is that one must distinguish amidst instances where the doctrine is invoked in grandiloquence and public comparisons unaccompanied and instanced where humanitarian intervention is actually relied on as a legal basis for justifying use of force in a nonher state. The l atter is a lot rarer than the former. The problem provided is that it is only the latter ensuants that is actually evidence of state practise of the right to humanitarian intervention.One of the soonest incidents to deal with the thought of humanitarian intervention commented on by commentators was that of Indian achievement in Bangladesh. In early 1971, following subjugation to Pakistani rule, Bangladeshi nationals were rebelling and seeking to establish Bangladesh as an independent country. India provided extensive military aid to Bangladesh to allow this to happen, aid without which arguably Bangladesh would not have won the conflict. In public theoretic, India stated thats is actions were based on humanitarian intervention since the Bangladeshis were suffering human rights violations under Pakistani rule.10This was highly criticised however for the fact was that India in having long-standing conflict with Pakistan itself did have vested interests in helping Bangladesh gain independence.11Indeed, India did not go on to utilise humanitarian intervention as a legal basis for its action and desire to rely on the doctrine of self-defence instead.12This pattern was repeated in many more incidents that occurred. Tanzania put ind militarily in Uganda in 1979 to enable rebels there to cut down the repressive leader Idi Amin.13In 1978 Vietnam invaded Cambodia stating that it wished to prevent Cambodia from suffering at the hands of its government. Both stated that they wished to help the citizens of the respective countries they intervened in. This was however continuously rejected by the international community, with France and the US specifically stating that human rights violations did not justify the use of force, thus clearly indicating that it was not accepted at that time that humanitarian intervention was considered to be a legal basis for intervention.14Chronologically, the next major incident of humanitarian intervention that took place was that of Australian intervention in East Timor. Rebels in East Timor seeking to establish it as in independent country were facing repression from the state of Indonesia resisting independence. Human rights violations in the situation ensued resulting in several UN Resolutions craft for peace and eventually in a UN referendum, the results of which indicated that the majority of people wished for independence. The Australian government thus took the lead in providing military assistance to East Timor to sicken Indonesian nominal head and establish an independent state.15In doing so, the Australian government expressly relied on the right to humanitarian intervention.What must be pointed out however is that the UN was involved in that situation, and most commentators regard that the intervention in East Timor is more akin to an incident where the UN beats force for purposes of humanitarian intervention rather than when the right is employed unilaterally by a state.16Thus, the intervention in East Timor was seen to be highly similar to the US intervention in Somalia in 1992 which had been acted upon only after the UN had specifically called for humanitarian intervention.17Perhaps the most famous incident of humanitarian intervention was that in Kosovo. Kosovo, now an independent country, utilise to be part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and consisted of a mix of ethnicities, with 90% being ethnical Albanians and the minority being Serbians. In the 1990s the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia started to choke up with each different country announcing its independence. The state of Kosovo also suggested breaking off from the tike, to regain the independence Kosovo once had before Yugoslavia was established in the first place. This was met by much resistance from the Serbians both in Serbia and in Kosovo. A regime of ethnic cleansing of the Albanians in Kosovo started to prevent the calls and efforts by those peoples to make Kosovo an independent countr y and one of the worlds worst conflicts started, with human rights violations reaching epidemic proportions.18This matter was brought to the attention of the Security Council, and on 31 establish 1998 it adopted Resolution 1160,19which obligate an arms embargo on the FRY and called for it to work with the Kosovar Albanians to achieve a peaceful solution to the matter. Following this however the violence in Kosovo only increase and Resolution 1199 was adopted which determined that the situation in Kosovo amounted to a threat to peace and security in the region.20The problem was however the presence of the veto in the Security Council. Every permanent member of the Security Council has the right to veto any Security Council dissolvents made. Russia being a major part of the former Soviet Union that existed was highly reluctant to take any action further to the two resolutions already adopted against the FRY and indicated that it would use its veto if any resolution were attempted to be passed which authorised military measures to be taken against the FRY. There was little chance that the Security Council would therefore be able to take action in response to the situation that was ongoing in Kosovo.21As a result of this, NATO states came together to discuss military intervention in Kosovo. NATO declared that the FRY had not complied with Resolution 1199 and that NATO would therefore institute military action against Russia. Extensive military action was undertaken via an aerial campaign, attacking FRY forces both in Kosovo and in the FRY itself to attempt to stop the attacks that were taking place against Kosovo. The campaign commenced ion 23 March 1999 and did not end several months later, on 10 June 1999 when the FRY forces hold to a case-fire and signed the military-technical agreement with NATO on 9 June 1999.22There was no doubt that the military action undertaken by NATO had been successful in bringing peace to the region. Despite the fact that there w as no apparent basis at the time for military action, there was no international objection to the force used (other than by the states to whom the military action was targeted against). It was apparently accepted that the action undertaken by NATO was lawful.23From this, one can deduct that there must have been a reasonable theoretical underlying to the force taken.It was clear that the action was not authorised under the Security Council resolutions, for man the resolutions were relied on in justifying the military action undertaken, it was always accepted that the resolutions did not authorise military force and indeed did not attempt to do so because of the veto that would be exercised by Russia. There was no question that the Serb forces had carried out an armed attack against NATO countries or anyone in the region of NATO countries and so the doctrines of self-defence or collective self-defence could not be relied on. The only remaining doctrine that could have possibly justi fied the military force undertaken by NATO forces was therefore that of humanitarian intervention. Indeed, the situation in Kosovo appears to be the one that rare the doctrine of humanitarian intervention from what was seen to be a less than credible basis of justification of use of force to one that was apparently widely accepted.24Thus commentators who point out that the doctrine was accepted as applying to the case of Kosovo point to the wide apparent acceptance of the international community that the acts of NATO in Kosovo were legal. In March 1999 the states of Belarus and Russia introduced a draft resolution to the Security Council which stated that the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia was illegal. This was rejected by a majority of 12 votes. In 1999, the UN Commission on Human Rights passed a resolution finding that the intervention by NATO had been lawful, with only Russia and Cuba (both communist states) finding against such a resolution.25Kosovo is therefore at least one incide nt where the right to humanitarian intervention was both relied on and appears to have been accepted. The difficulty lies in the fact that while the military action undertaken against Kosovo was considered to be morally justified, concerns cut across to be expressed by academic commentators that the incident should not be seen to act as precedent, for doing so would effectively widen the category of exceptions that existed in relation to the use of force and undermine the well-established rules of Article 2(4).26Perhaps the next most famous incident where the right of humanitarian intervention was relied on, but one where the basis of such a right was considered to be much more contentious, was that of Iraq.27Coalition military intervention in Iraq in 2003 was one of the most contentious use of force that took place and the legality of the war continues to be debated to the current day. Different bases were offered by the coalition states that went to war at different times. Saddam Husseins brutal treatment of his people and the human rights violations that they had suffered were often pointed to when the rhetoric on whether a war should take place was entered into.28What is notable however was that although apparently doing so in the point in time preceding the war, neither the US nor the UK legally relied on the doctrine of humanitarian intervention to justify its war in Iraq. Rather, the UK relied on interpretation of Security Council resolutions while the US argued for the right of self-defence, both pointing to the fact that Iraq was in possession of weapons of self-destruction (an assertion which was later discovered to be invalid).29The fact that humanitarian intervention was not relied on despite the fact that Iraq was suffering a humanitarian catastrophe and had been for several years indicates that neither of the worlds leading states considered that the right to humanitarian intervention had established itself as a legal norm and would not, formal ly at least, be accepted by the international community as a bass for military intervention.Responsibility to protectThe humanitarian intervention doctrine has evolved in recent times and international law has come to develop the responsibility to protect doctrine, often referred to as the R2P doctrine. The very existence of this doctrine supports the idea that humanitarian intervention is not only regarded as a moral justification of the use of force in states where human rights violations are being committed, but is a positive duty on the international community to act and intervene in states where there is inadequate respect for human rights.UN Secretary General Kofi Anan brought the tensions that were apparent behind the prohibition on the use of force in Article 2(4) and the fact that intervention was required as a result of increasing human rights violations that were seen around the world to the fore in 1999. At that date, the atrocities in Rwanda were being discussed by the international community, and the committee that had been set up to investigate how the genocide in Rwanda had taken place came back with reports attributing much blame to the UN for failing to take action in Rwanda in what was seen as a preventable genocide.30Annan therefore requested the General Assembly to answer the question of if humanitarian intervention is, indeed an unacceptable labialize on sovereignty, how should we response to Rwanda, to a Srebrenica to gross and systematic violations of human rights?.31The Canadian government in response to this question set up the ICISS. In 2001 the ICISS produced a report where the doctrine of the responsibility to protect was advanced.32In 2004, the High-Level Panel on threats, challenges and changes that had been set up by the UN secretary-General stated that the R2P doctrine was an emerging norm of collective international responsibility to protect.33The Secretary-General went on to endorse this finding. In a 2005 world summit, th e R2P doctrine was expressly accepted and referred to.34Perhaps the most pertinent quotation of the R2P doctrine is that the Security Council specifically referred to the doctrine in Resolution 1674 (2006) when it was regarding the question of how civilians in armed conflicts should be protected.35The Resolution referred to the R2P doctrine as a doctrine of international law apparently conferring upon it a status of customary international law or otherwise.The problem with the fact that R2P now appears to be part of international law is the emergence of further questions, namely what the relationship of the doctrine of humanitarian intervention with the R2P doctrine is. Is the R2P doctrine simply any other way of describing humanitarian intervention? Or are the two ideals entirely different? If so, is humanitarian intervention subject to the doctrine of R2P? Debate on these questions commenced ever since the R2P doctrine was put forward and has ensued ever since.One might consider that the R2P doctrine is in fact simply another way of describing the doctrine of humanitarian intervention, and one that seeks to gift the doctrine a more elevated status. The language of responsibility no doubt confers more powers than the language of rights does for while the latter grants states discretion in whether to exercise the particular rights of concern, the former does not. If one were to accept such an argument, then the fact that R2P now appears to be a doctrine of international law means that humanitarian intervention is also a rule of international law and such intervention legalises use of force in other states.However, the ICISSs formulation of the R2P doctrine is on the basis that it is an entirely different concept to the doctrine of humanitarian intervention. The ICISS report thus stated that humanitarian intervention should not be seen to be the prime concern in the modern world where catastrophic human rights violations such as Rwanda were taking place. Th e Commission argued that there was a need for a vernal doctrine, which governed the need to intervene in the affairs of states who committed human rights violations. Such a doctrine should not be seen as a right to intervene that was granted to the intervening state, as humanitarian intervention might do, but rather as a responsibility on other states to intervene as a result of the right of the state that was suffering human rights violations to be protected.36R2P also introduced a new method of dealing with the concept of state sovereignty. As set out above, the doctrine of humanitarian intervention does not tie in well with the concept of state sovereignty, for it effectively allows a sate to intervene in another states affairs on the ground that the former state is of the opinion that the latter states treatment of its own citizen is in accurate. Such a concept can be seen to go against the very idea of equality of states in international law.37The R2P doctrine proposes to deal with this tension by proposing that the concept of state sovereignty to control its citizens with that of sovereignty as responsibility to protect its citizens. Once again, there was a shift from rights to responsibility. The R2P doctrine effectively re-characterises the conception of state sovereignty as one that is a right of governments to control their citizens, to one where there is a duty on governments to protect its citizens, and rights are granted to citizens to be protected. Where these rights were not being complied with and a government was not protecting its citizens and was in fact committing human rights violations against it, then the sovereignty to protect was not being effected and this sovereignty did not exist. As such, any exercise of the R2P doctrine through the use of military force would not contravene any idea of sovereignty.38Such a device can be commended for its view of the principle of state sovereignty. The fact is that the concept of state sovereignt y and the idea that a state is able to control its citizens as it wishes is one that while remaining in theory can be seen not to have continued on an international basis. International law has long adjudicated to govern the relationship of a state and its individuals. A prime example of this can be seen to be in international human rights protections which essentially raise standards on states with regards to a states treatment of its citizens which must be complied with.39The very concept of the international community and of the United Nations necessitates a limiting of the concept of state sovereignty. The reformulation of the concept of state sovereignty from one which sees sovereignty as control to that to protect might be considered to be ingenious in that it resolves the theoretical tensions that exist between the right to military intervention in states where human rights violations are committed and sovereignty of that state.However, the fact is that the concept of sovere ignty as sovereignty to protect calm poses the same problems that the traditional concept of state sovereignty controls Sovereignty to protect allows a third state to intervene in a states matters when protection of citizens is not being undertaken adequately. Which state is to decide however when citizens protection is being undertaken adequately and when it is not? To what extent does the protection of citizens in a state have to be undermined before military action can be allowed in that state?40Thus, whether or not R2P is the same or a different doctrine to that of humanitarian intervention, the same difficulties that are faced by humanitarian intervention proponents remain, and perhaps the most major of these problems is the wide floodgates the idea of a responsibility to protect opens. Practical incidents have shown how in the past humanitarian intervention has wrongfully been used by states, often on a post-facto basis, to justify use of force and intervention in other state s. The R2P doctrine in fact provides for a wider scope of humanitarian intervention for as pointed out above, a responsibility imposes a bigger duty and therefore a larger scope of power on states to take action than a right to intervene does, and the R2P doctrine therefore arguably exacerbates the problem that humanitarian intervention traditionally faced.In this vein however it must be noted that the proponents of the R2P doctrine point out that unlike humanitarian intervention, the R2P would impose a duty on states to employ a wide range of measures, along a continuum, to regulate states behaviour. Thus the R2P doctrine envisaged that preventative measures should be used to prevent human rights atrocities, and duties included rebuilding societies that had been affected by human rights violations. Such a doctrine is therefore very commendable in theory.41Furthermore, it must be pointed out that the R2P doctrine apparently appears to have been envisaged to be utilised within the pr ovisions of the Security Council rather than impose duties or rights on states to act on a unilateral basis to military intervene in other countries. If that is the case, then the R2P doctrine has not really helped towards resolving the questions environ humanitarian intervention at all.42ConclusionThe above discussion has shown that there are many questions regarding the legality of humanitarian intervention in international law as a justification for use of force in another state. There is little doubt that in the past the doctrine was not regarded as a valid justification for the use of force. Thus the international community tended to reject attempts by states to justify use of force with the concept of humanitarian intervention, not least because such justification was often posed on an ex facto basis and was usually tied in with some other form of justification that was put forward. The position appeared to change however in the NATO intervention in Kosovo when the internatio nal world apparently accepted the legality of the action. The war in Iraq in 2003 however appeared to reverse the position once again, when attempts to rely on humanitarian protection were rejected almost from the outset and indeed the coalition states eventually went on to rely on other basses to justify the use of force that was undertaken.The doctrine of humanitarian intervention does have its proponents and certainly is a very attractive concept in international law. In the writers view however the dangers posed by the doctrine outweigh the advantages that it offers. The doctrine effectively widens the scope of exceptions that exist to Article 2(4) and allows states to unilaterally take force. This undermines not only the concept of state sovereignty but also the purpose of the United Nations and the Security Council as being relevant bodies to regulate international peace and security.The R2P doctrine that has been put forward as a doctrine of international law is in many ways preferable to that of humanitarian intervention. The R2P doctrine provides for rights of citizens rather than rights of states and importantly it envisages that military action will be undertaken by the Security Council rather than on a unilateral basis. The writer is therefore of the opinion that the R2P doctrine should be distinguished from the idea of humanitarian intervention R2P should be recognised as a principle of international law and one that allows the Security Council to take military action in state when required. It should not however be seen to extend the doctrine of humanitarian protection.Indeed it is the writers view that humanitarian protection does not exist as a legal right in international law, both in theory and in practise. The doctrine goes against all ideas of state sovereignty and against the prohibition of the use of force in general. Furthermore, states do not appear to have accepted that the doctrine is a norm of law. In this vein, the case of Kosovo c an be considered to be an exception in international law.43In that case, the only reason the Security Council did not take action was because of the presence of the Russian veto, but otherwise there was international consensus that military action should

Economic Impact of the Indonesian Mineral Law

sparing Impact of the Indonesian mineral LawAbstractRaw mineral ores is one of excellence natural product in Indonesia. For many socio-economic classs, the mineral archeological site companion in Indonesia so-and-so export raw mineral ores now over the world. A raw excavation right potencys the mining ships conjunction to process the ores domestic helpally then export its product. The presidential term purpose is to increase respect added of the mineral ores and creates domestic industry activity. The problem arises since there are only few smelters which ready to process the mineral ores. In short run, this new police has a negative impact to mineral export activity and gross domestic product growth get down slower.1 IntroductionIndonesia is one of rich countries with abundant mineral imaginativeness. Bauxite, copper, gold, atomic number 28 and tin are Indonesias excellence mineral resource export product. This mineral ores are spread over in Indonesia region, mos tly in Kalimantan Island, Papua Island, Sumatra Island and Sulawesi Island.The latest report of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) mentions the estimation of bauxite controls in Indonesia is 1,000,000 metric ton, ranked Indonesia in 6th of biggest bauxite reserves in the world. Meanwhile the reserve of Indonesias copper is 28,000 metric ton, the 8th largest in the world. Gold reserve is 3,000 metric ton, placed in 5th largest reserves in the world. Other Indonesia resources, nickel and tin are estimated 3,900,000 and 800,000 metric ton reserved beneath the earth. Indonesias nickel is 6th largest deposit and tin reserve ranked this country at second position in the world (USGS, 2014). go through 1.Production per year its reserves (bauxite, nickel, tin) (source USGS, 2014)Figure 2.Production per year its reserves (copper, gold) (source USGS, 2014)These generous resources are being used by Indonesian government to add national income by export the mineral ores to foreign country. Since 1 967, Indonesian government attracts foreign company to apparel in mining sector. To regulate the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in mining sector, the government had been issued several mining law which has revised over the time. Since then, the mining sector is become favorite among foreign investor (Bhasin Venkataramany, 2007).These mining activities contribute to Indonesias Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Together with oil gas and quarrying, mining sector accounted with 7% in real GDP at 2012 (at everlasting prices). Even though this sector does not contribute more in contrary with an some other(prenominal) natural resource e.g. agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery with 12% contribution in GDP, mineral sector still contribute USD 61.3 billion in Indonesias total GDP of USD 875.72 billionFigure 3. Indonesia GDP 2012 at constant prices (source Central Bureau of Statistics)2 Indonesia New dig Law aft(prenominal) spending almost four years word in the House of Representa tives, on 16th December of 2008 the parliament members agreed a new mining law, replacing old mining law which had been utilise almost 40 years. This new mining law officially signed by the president on January 2009 and the law is known as Law No.4/2009 Concerning Mineral and Coal Mining (Syahrir, Bongaerts, Drebenstedt, 2013).The governments purpose to implement this new mining law is not only regulates the contract term for foreign investor company and obligate them to flummox a mining license, but as well better environment and increasing added value of mineral resources (Syahrir et al., 2013).In order to protect the environment area which affected by mining operation, the new mining law also regulate the mining company to keep the environment and ensure them to gather the minimum requirement of environmental standard operational based on their level of license. Beside the environment purpose, the new law also regulates the company to undertake domestic processing. The Law no.4/ 2009, Chapter XIII, article 102 and 103 statedArticle 102The holders of Mining business enterprise License (IUP) and Special Mining Business License (IUPK) shall increase the added value of mineral and/or coal resources in carrying out mining, processing and purification activities as hale as in making use mineral and coal.Article 103The holders of Mining Business License (IUP) and Special Mining Business License (IUPK) for operational production shall process and purify output of the domestic mining.The holders of IUP and IUPK as referred to in paragraph (1) can process and purify the mining output from others holders of IUP and IUPK.Further provisions on the need to increase the added value as referred to in Article 102 as well as on the processing and purification as referred to in paragraph (2) are to be provided for in government regulation.Furthermore, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resource (MoEMR) also issued a regulation no.34/2009 in order to control production and export of mining product. This is reflected from article 5 MoEMR no.34/2009 which statedThe Mining Company as cited in Article 3 paragraph (1) shall be allowed to export the mineral or coal as long as it is capable of fulfilling a Minimal per centum of Mineral Sale or Minimal Percentage of Coal Sale.This policy issued as government want to ensure the supply for increasing domestic demand. With this Ministry Regulation, the company may export their production, but is encouraged to fulfill domestic demand which calculated by Domestic Market Obligation (DMO) (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2012).Despite this new mining law was signed on five years ago in 2009 the effect will be enforced on 12 January 2014. Therefore, after 12 January 2014 the mining company cannot export mineral unprocessed. This situation is totally different when in the old mining rules regime1, the mining company still allowed to shipping the mineral ores directly to their purchaser industrial countries, such as Ch ina, Japan, EU countries and United States.At that time the mineral ores are exported and then processed by the buyer in order to add the value of ores product. Later, Indonesias industry sector will import the metal product to supply their production (Syahrir et al., 2013). For example Indonesia shipyard industries have to import steel from China where the Chinas steel plant produced steel from Indonesias iron ores.Based on this situation, the idea of adding value to mineral resource in Indonesia came to surface. And later the President of Indonesia Republic signed it as the new mining law. This law and regulation will close the mining companys curtain to export the mineral resources directly to the buyer unless the mineral is processed domestically.3 The Lack Preparation of Mineral Refinery SectorAfter the new law has been signed on December 2009, the mineral resources have to be processed or extracted in domestic smelter or extractor. In the other hand there are only three availa ble mining refinery in Indonesia by 2012 PT Aneka Tambang, PT Indonesia Asahan Aluminium and PT Smelting (Hogan Lovells, 2012). After another regulation MoEMR reg. no.7/2012 come into force to mandate the mining companies to increasing the value through mineral processing, some mining company are intended to invest smelter in Indonesia which are PT Vale Indonesia, PT Freeport Indonesia, PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara, PT Weda Bay Nickel, PT Jogja Magasa Iron and PT Agincourt Resources.Those mining companies should build mining refinery in order to comply the law even though they are facing uncertainty condition to build a smelter caused by surrealistic deadlines and unclear concept of adjure of Work (CoW) (McBeth, 2014).Indonesias inconsistence policy and high risk investment made the companies considering build a smelter are diminish (Jensen Burton, 2014). This unprepared mineral refinery industry to anticipate the new mining law is being unhealthy to Indonesian mining sector as thei r ore cannot be shipped.Fortunately, the government already received several refinery plant proposals coming from domestic investor and foreign investor. However only three are expected to start the project this year with takes at least 5 years to complete (Jensen Burton, 2014).4 The Effect of Mineral LawAs mentioned above, there is some increasing amount of mineral ores in mining companies stock pile as it cannot be shipped over the world. After the new mining law has been applied, the export activity especially in mining sector is decrease which can be shown by following figureFigure 4.Export of Mineral Ores (source Ministry of Trade)The figures describing the export of mineral ores especially tin, copper, nickel and aluminum. After the new law has been signed, the mining companies start to boost the production in order to add extra revenue before they could not export the ores unprocessed.When the MoEMR no.7/2012 released to mandate them to increasing mineral value added, they s tart to slow down the production as they cannot export directly to their buyer.Table 1.GDP growth tracely at constant price (source Central Bureau of Statistics)This condition also affecting Indonesias GDP growth as the mineral trade also contribute to Indonesia GDP as shown in previous table. From nine sectors of GDP endorser, only mining and quarry sector which decrease consecutively in 1st quarter and 2nd quarter of 2014. Throughout the first quarter of this year, the value-added mining and quarrying decreased about 0.38% when compared with last year in the same quarter. If calculated based on constant 2000 prices, the value added produced by the sector in the first quarter of 2014 was only Rp 48.2 trillion. The figure is lower than the first quarter of 2013 amounted to Rp 48.4 trillion and fourth quarter 2013 amounted to Rp 50 trillion (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2014).However, in the trade, export of coal only US $ 5.63 billion, down 13.29% compared to the first quarter of 2013 amounted to US $ 6.49 billion. In fact, coal became the biggest contributor to non-oil exports. So that the growth of exports to the first quarter of 2014 GDP is minus 0.78% (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2014)5 ConclusionIn the short run, the result of new mining law is negative to mining trade activity and to national income growth. In the long run after the smelter built, the mining sector will increase once more and the domestic industry also growth since the mineral ores should be processed domestically. As the result, in the long term this law will lead great national income growth.Literature ReferencesBhasin, B., Venkataramany, S. (2007). Mining Law and Policy Replacing the Contract of Work System in Indonesia Mining Law and Policy Replacing the Contract of Work System in Indonesia, 116.Central Bureau of Statistics. (2014). Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Indonesia Triwulan II-2014, (63).Gandataruna, K., Haymon, K. (2011). A Dream Denied? Mining Legislation and The Constitut ion in Indonesia. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 47(2), 221231. doi10.1080/00074918.2011.585951Hogan Lovells. (2012). Investment in Indonesia s Mineral Refining and Processing Sector Value-added Regulations and Industrial Policy, (July).Jensen, F., Burton, M. (2014). As smelters weigh cost, Indonesias ore export ban may backfire. Retrieved December 11, 2014, from http//www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/27/indonesia-minerals-smelters-idUSL3N0KY20P20140127McBeth, J. (2014). How to kill an industry in Indonesia. Retrieved December 11, 2014, from http//www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/SEA-01-100214.htmlPricewaterhouseCoopers. (2012). Mining in Indonesia Investment and Taxation Guide, 4th Editio(April).Syahrir, R., Bongaerts, J. C., Drebenstedt, C. (2013). The Future of Indonesian Mining Activities after the Implementation of Law Number 4 of 2009 Concerning Mineral and Coal Mining ( The New Mining Law ). IMRE Journal, 7(4).USGS. (2014). Mineral Commodity Summaries 2014.1 T he mining precursor law no.11/1967 used over than 40 years in Indonesia mining industry. At that time, the mining company which most of them is foreign investor act as asseverator under government and tied with Contract of Work (CoW) agreement (Gandataruna Haymon, 2011)

Cultures: The Case Of Genital Mutilation

Cultures The Case Of Genital MutilationThis article explained the reasoning and differing views on female genital mutilation. The article describes in detail the three types of female genital mutilation, or FGM. The first is called clitoridectomy, in which part of the clitoris or the whole clitoris is removed. The bleeding caused by this operation is usually stopped by either applying direct push or stitching the wound. The second type of genital berth is call excision. In this procedure, both(prenominal) the clitoris and the labia minora be removed, and the bleeding after the procedure is stopped by stitching up the wound. The third and most extreme method of genital biting is called infibulation. In this method, the entire clitoris and labia minora atomic number 18 removed, and incisions argon made into the labia majora. The raw surfaces of the labia majora are then either stitched together or made to be held together until they heal together. The newly formed skin covers t he urethra and the majority of the vaginal opening. Infibulation is non used as frequently as the clitoridectomy or excision, provided it is still used on rare occasion. No matter which form of genital stinging is used, there brook been many extensive and both(prenominal)times degenerative health hassles associated with female genital mutilation. These include chronic and repeated infections, difficulties in urination and menstruation, pain during intercourse, infertility, and obstruction during childbirth, causing painful tearing and excess bleeding. most(prenominal) of these are caused most by the infibulation method, as it obstructs the most. However, major complications trick still arise from the another(prenominal)(a)wise two methods as well. These complications are generally ignored in cultures where female genital mutilation is legitimate as a cultural norm. This practice is seen as a cultural norm in such countries as Africa and the put East. The World Health O rganization states that between 85 and 115 million women worldwide have undergone genital cutting. Most of these instances have occurred in regions of Africa or the position East, although there are now beginning to be small numbers of cases telled in countries such as Australia, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States.It seems that the conclusion world argued for in this article is that the mutilation of female genitalia is wrong, regardless(prenominal) of any persuasion cultural or otherwise. This article makes reference to several cases that argue for the ethical firmness of purpose of female genital mutilation, and it refutes each of these as invalid arguments.The first of these arguments states that it is morally wrong to ping the practices of another country unless we are prepared to compeerly criticize similar practices in our own country, and states that the United States is guilty of doing this. musical composition it may be true that the United States can tend to be oblivious to the rent of other countries in some respects, body image is not one of them. American women are all too aware of what it means to feel pressure to adapt to the right or ideal body image, because of the heavy influence the Western culture feels from the media to look a trustworthy way. The tacit influence the media has on the Western culture is that if you do not look like the women on the television screen, you are a failure. It is untrue for this argument to state that the United States is not critical of themselves in the same way. Therefore, this argument is not valid.The second argument states that it is morally impermissible to criticize the practices of another culture until their own culture is alone free of all evil and immoral practices. This argument is, to put it plainly, ridiculous how can it be morally permissible to ignore a cry for champion just because the one who hears the call is not perfect? This would make helping anybody at any time totally immoral. For shell, a doctor would not be able to help a patient if he engaged in a morally questionable activity at any time in the near past. This goes directly against the Hippocratic Oath that the doctor snaps that explicitly states that he is to help people. This argument is also invalid.The third argument says that female genital mutilation is equal in morality to dieting and body influence in the Western culture. However, there are several basic deviances between the two practices. The first difference is that while dieting and body shaping is completely voluntary, genital mutilation is an involuntary procedure. The father makes the decision about whether or not to make is daughter get into in genital mutilation. The girl is then held down by several grown women while the procedure is performed so she doesnt jerk away. Dieting and body shaping are completely by choice, regardless of the pressure one may feel from the media or their peers. Another difference is that genital mutilation cannot be undone. Dieting, on the other hand, is very easily reversed. A third difference is that genital mutilation is mostly performed in unsafe and unsanitary conditions that children should not be exposed to, and dieting is not. A fourth difference is that female genital mutilation causes extreme health risks, not limited to death. Dieting only causes problems like this when taken to extremes, such as anorexia and bulimia. These are both reversible and treatable. A fifth difference is that female genital mutilation is usually performed on girls much too young to know the difference, or unconstipated give consent. (Even if she were old enough, consent would be irrelevant anyway.) Dieting, on the other hand, is something young adults and adults partake in. All of these differences illustrated are more than enough to prove that dieting and genital mutilation are not even close to being related in any sense. Therefore, this argument is also invalid.The fourt h argument states that female genital mutilation involves the loss of a function that is not vitally essential to the lives of those losing it, and that the Western culture attaches far too much significance to it. To imply that genital cutting is depriving a woman of sexual pleasure is to say that she is merely a sexual being, and that is degrading to women. There is no difference between genital cutting and leading a feel of celibacy. While the outcome of genital cutting and celibacy may be the same, we cannot say that the two are equal. Celibacy can be ended at any time, if the individual so take ons. That is the fundamental difference choice. Female genital mutilation is not optional, voluntary, or reversible. Therefore, this argument is invalid because the exposit do not match the outcome.ENTRY 2Sex Consequences World Population Growth vs. Reproductive Rights by Margaret P. BattinThis article addresses the issue of world creation growth while also explaining how the milita ry man race can have children within the carrying capacity of the land and the environment around them, thus proving more responsible.The involution in the article is that tender being can reproduce at a rate that strips the land of vital, intent sustaining resources by overpopulating it. This can be dangerous and life threatening to the sympathetic race as a whole. Land is a finite resource and can only sustain and support a certain number of people. Anything beyond that number could be fatal. According to the author, Battin, our current world population is 5.8 billion people. The growth rate of the population is that it doubles once round every 40 years. At this rate, the population is set to pull ahead 12.5 billion by the end of the century. Another 40 years later, and the population will be at 25 billion, and then 50 billion, 100 billion, and so on. However, the land cannot sustain this many people, so the population will never actually hit this extreme. The population wi ll shrink in size again due starvation or other natural causes before it ever gets that high. Now the problem is, how to keep that from happening? Thomas Malthus theorized that the population needfully to be controlled while he did not advocate direct population control, he thought perchance the morality and common sense of the population would serve as a sort of birth control. However, he knew that the reality was the population would still go by means of stages of overpopulation and starvation. Therefore he said that population control must be exerted from an outside source to keep the human population from dooming themselves to extinction.The feminist group, on the other hand, believes that the controlling of the population growth equates to controlling people. Also, they are convinced that contraceptive programs are analyseed exclusively by first world male doctors, and they test their programs on less privileged third world women. As one feminist movement states, populatio n control is racist, sexist, and classist. It also states that the contraception programs try to king the values of a first world, well-off group of people onto the less privileged. There is a conclusion to help settle this dispute, which will be explored in detail.The solution that the author argues for is that everybody in the world, male and female, should use a form of super effective, easily reversible reflexive birth control, or contraception. There are two major types already on the market for women. These are the intrauteral Copper T380A, and the subdermal Norplant. For men, nothing is readily on the market however, there are several automatic contraceptive options for men being tested for use on humans. If everyone used a form of automatic background birth control, pregnancy would be a choice rather than a chance.The argument for this type of system of logic is that in the United States, roughly 50% of all pregnancies are not planned. Also, half of these unknowledgeable pregnancies are aborted. This is generally due to the fact that the parents are simply not prepared for a pregnancy, including and especially pregnancies that occur because of failed birth control. These pregnancies would most likely be welcomed at a later time, when the parents were more prepared and ready for a pregnancy and to start a family. Granting the individual the ability to choose when they wanted a pregnancy to occur would put much more power in the hands of the individual to help control the population growth. Generally speaking, parents would not choose to have as many children or pregnancies as they would if they left it to chance. Also, women would not fall prey to agreeing to something in the heat of the moment, or being coerced into agreeing to bear a child. A pregnancy would not occur as a result of rape, or because of a misuse or nonuse of a birth control method. This opens a whole new world to women instead of making the option to be pregnant a negative choice to a positive choice. Instead of risking get pregnant, a woman would be able to choose when to allow her body to become pregnant. There would also be a degree of reproductive independence for men as well. They would not have to worry about accidentally causing a pregnancy, and then having to be responsible for the child that they helped create. They would be completely free. While they could still be tricked by a woman who had her device removed without his knowledge, there is much less risk than if the woman forgot accidentally or purposely to use her birth control or misused it. However, the woman still holds the majority of control over the result of the contraception in the intercourse.The logic used here is that if everyone used background contraception, then everyone would be free to make the decision on whether or not to become pregnant or not.Everyone has the right to choose whether or not they want to be pregnant.Background contraception grants that choice.Therefore, a ll humans should be made to install automatic contraception.While this is a valid argument, I am not sure I agree with it. While this would indeed solve the reproduction growth crisis, it would also take away human free will. Many people may not be receptive to this type of control, not to mention that these types of automatic contraception are not particularly inexpensive. It would not make sense to initiate a population growth control based on these two factors alone. As Battin points out, the installment of this type of control has an almost fascist sound. Forcing everyone into the same type of contraception would pose as a major threat to free will, and would cause some dire consequences to occur for those enforcing it.ENTRY 3Womens Rights as Human Rights Toward a Re-Vision of Human Rights by Charlotte BunchFor centuries, there has been a distinction between human rights and womens rights. This distinction is disconcerting because of it, numerous heinous crimes have been commit ted against women, including mutilation, starvation, and murder. Technically, because there is a distinction, womens rights are not classified as human rights. Since women are humans, wherefore are womens rights not viewed as human rights? Does this make women less human than men? Surely this cannot be so. While it is obvious that women are no less human than men, they are sometimes hardened as such a lower life form. Even in situations that men and women are both treated unfairly, it is the male that is seen as mistreated, and the female almost fades into background noise. In a male-predominate culture, women are seen as not as important, and are often treated as lesser to the male, even in their suffering.While the concept of human rights is one that is widely multinationally known and accepted, womens rights are not as commonly accepted as humane or even right. However, it has been theorized that the universality of human rights can be used as a tie to help bridge the whirl between human rights and womens rights. In 1948, the Declaration of Human Rights was set forth. This outlines the guidelines of the basic rights we as human beings have. In that Declaration, Eleanor Roosevelt fought to add Article 2, which says that all people have the right to everything enclosed in the Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status. The addition of not discriminating against gender was meant to begin to fix the issue of womens subordination.There are four approaches that the author, Bunch, speaks about, which she believes to be an effective way to bridge the gap, so to speak, between human rights and womens rights. While these approaches can apply to several areas of life, she writes that they are particularly helpful in drawing a connection between human rights and womens rights. They also demonstrate how violence toward women is a colza of basic human rights.The first approach that Bunch speaks about is to take into account the specific needs of women as civil and political rights, while also calling to attention the particularly heinous tortures women suffer through simply because of the fact that they are female. bingle instance where this has been done is when the Womens Task Force of Amnesty International took a stand to launch a campaign for women who are held as political prisoners and are sexually abused, which causes them to not be able to care for their children and thus causing a intrusion of human rights on the children. This directly links a violation of womens rights to a violation of human rights. This is a valid and sound argument it shows a clear, direct correlation between the two premises that a violation of womens rights causes a violation of human rights and therefore, it is wrong.The second approach is to regard womens rights as sociostinting rights. This is in regards to food, empl oyment, shelter, and health care. This is the view taken by those who would view human rights as too individualized, and take womens rights as a purely economic issue. In other words, human rights do not have meaning without an economic definition. This helps to galvanize women into protecting themselves from workplace violence, and from being taken advantage of by employers. Women cannot be targeted as cheap, easily exploited employment, because this would violate their human rights. This is also a valid argument.The third approach is to view womens rights through a legal scope. There have been new legal guidelines set in place to adjudge against gender discrimination, and this has added a new dimension to the womens rights debate. The specific laws that state the legal issues behind gender discrimination and violence against women are one major example of this third approach. These laws have made it possible for women to be able to fight for their rights to be treated fairly, as human beings, rather than a lower life form to males. The most important international form of this law is called the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, which has been stated to be essentially an international bill of rights for women and a framework for womens participation in the development processwhich spells out internationally accepted principles and standards for achieving equality between women and men. This Convention has been accepted by 104 countries, as of January 1990. This means that all countries that have agreed to and accepted the Convention must adhere to and abide by the laws stated within it, and a report must be submitted to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, proving their compliance to the Convention. However, the Convention never actually directly addresses the issue of violence against women. This is its one mar it does, however, clearly state a human rights outline for women within it. If a ll governments accepted this Convention, this would be a great way to start heading in the right direction toward men and women being treated equally. This is a valid and sound argumentThe fourth and final approach that Bunch explains is to view human rights through feminist lenses, so to speak. What this means is that we are to view human rights in such a way that more thoroughly examines how human rights stir this lives of women in depth, and then asking how human rights can be more responsive and sensitive to women. While the other three approaches merely had a feminist taint, this approach is the most blatantly feminist it clearly takes a stance that purely centered around women, and waits for no one to tell them if their approach is an correct human rights issue or not. The danger in approaching the issue with this narrow scope is that it rules out too much reason. While it may be a valid argument, in my opinion, it has not been thought through thoroughly enough and is simply ignoring some of the basic rules of logic.

First Kiss :: essays research papers

My First KissI was five. He was six. When we first found out(a) we had to cop hands during the second scene of the Christmas Pageant we both had the same response, EW Gross rag and I had known each other basic every last(predicate)y all of our lives. Our grandparents were friends, our parents were friends and even our siblings were friends. It was as if we were destine to be friends too because of family genes.Every Sunday afternoon, after church, me, my parents, my grandparents and my brother along with Joshs parents, grandparents, and brother, would all go to Joshs house. It was a ritual that started back as early as I can remember and still is carried out today.The parents would chat over coffee, our old(a) siblings would ride their bikes and Josh and I would play in the sandbox. Lets play house. I would always say. To which Josh responded, No way. House is for girls. Lets play ninjas. HIYA So we made a compromise. I was the mommy, the cat was the baby and Josh was the ninja d addy.When youre five years old you dont rattling think of boys as boys or girls as girls. Other kids are just your friends, whether they wear a pink dress or blue slacks. Never beforehand did I really think of Josh as a boy till I was forced to hold his hand in the pageant.Both of us whined and complained and if my memory severs my correctly, Josh threw an out right tantrum about the whole scene. Yet still we were forced to stand there hand in hand.It was action night and our parents came back stage for a pep talk. My mom fixed my frilled dress and Joshs mom straightened his hair and both of our mothers fundamentally told us to go out there and smile whether we liked it or not.The time for our big scene came. We waited in the wings for our cue and finally we were pushed out on stage.